Acid Attacks in India: Legal Responses and Survivor Stories

Few crimes carry the kind of cruelty that acid attacks do. In a matter of seconds, a corrosive substance can permanently disfigure a person, strip away their sight, and shatter their sense of self. In India, this form of violence disproportionately targets young women and adolescent girls, often as retaliation for rejecting a marriage proposal or refusing romantic advances. Despite legal reforms and growing public awareness, acid attacks remain a persistent and deeply gendered form of violence that demands sustained attention.

What is an acid attack? 🔗

An acid attack involves the deliberate throwing or administering of a corrosive substance – such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, or nitric acid – on another person with the intention of causing injury. The consequences are devastating: severe burns, permanent disfigurement (especially of the face), loss of vision, and lasting psychological trauma. Survivors often require multiple reconstructive surgeries over many years, and even then, the damage is never fully reversible.

What makes this crime particularly insidious is the ease of access to corrosive substances. For years, acid could be bought over the counter at local shops for as little as ₹50 per bottle. This easy availability has been a significant contributing factor to the prevalence of attacks. A study published in the Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care described acid attacks as one of the most common forms of gender-based violent crime in South Asian countries, including India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Cambodia.

The scale of the problem 🔗

According to data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 207 acid attacks were reported in 2023, an increase from 202 in 2022 and 176 in 2021. However, these figures almost certainly understate the true scale. Organisations like the Acid Survivors Trust International (ASTI) estimate that the actual number of attacks could be as high as 1,000 per year, with many cases going unreported due to social stigma, family pressure, and fear of retaliation.

States like West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh consistently report the highest numbers. Together, they account for over half of estimated cases nationally. Other states with significant numbers include Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, and Karnataka. In contrast, several smaller states and Union Territories report zero cases, though underreporting may play a role even there.

Who are the victims and perpetrators? 🔗

The overwhelming majority of acid attack victims are women and young girls. The perpetrators are almost always men. A 2024 analysis by ASTI found that roughly three-fourths of attacks on women stemmed from personal relationship conflicts – rejection of marriage proposals, refusal of sexual advances, dowry disputes, or domestic abuse. Attacks on men, while less common, are more often linked to property disputes, professional jealousy, or political rivalries.

The typical victim profile is an adolescent girl or young woman from a lower-income household. Poverty, low literacy, and patriarchal social norms all create conditions in which acid violence thrives. In states with strong patriarchal cultures, honour-based violence and dowry-related aggression remain intertwined with this crime.

The legal landscape before 2013 🔗

For a long time, there was no specific law dealing with acid attacks. Perpetrators were prosecuted under general provisions of the Indian Penal Code – Sections 320, 322, 325, and 326 – which dealt with “grievous hurt.” While Section 326 technically allowed for punishment up to life imprisonment for causing harm with a corrosive substance, in practice, convicts often received sentences of just three to four years. Compensation awarded to survivors, when ordered at all, was minimal.

This legal inadequacy meant that perpetrators could attack someone with acid, serve a brief prison term, and walk free – while survivors spent years and lakhs of rupees on medical treatment with no meaningful state support. The Law Commission of India’s 226th Report (2009) recognised acid attacks as crimes causing permanent physical and psychological harm, highlighted their gendered nature, and called for distinct legal provisions. But legislative action remained slow in coming.

The landmark case: Laxmi v. Union of India 🔗

The turning point came through the courage of one survivor. Laxmi Agarwal was just 15 years old in 2005 when she was attacked with acid in New Delhi by a 32-year-old family acquaintance whose marriage proposal she had refused. The attack left her severely disfigured. Her attacker was charged and convicted, but was released on bail shortly after and went on to lead a normal life – including getting married within a month of his release.

Determined to prevent others from suffering the same fate, Laxmi filed a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the Supreme Court of India. Her petition had three core demands: strict regulation of acid sales, recognition of acid attacks as a distinct offence under the law, and adequate compensation for survivors.

Supreme Court guidelines of 2013 🔗

The Supreme Court’s response to Laxmi’s PIL was significant. In July 2013, the court issued detailed guidelines to regulate acid sales across the country. These included the requirement that buyers must produce a photo identity card and state the reason for purchase, and that sellers must forward this information to the nearest police station within three days. No acid could be sold to anyone under the age of 18.

The court also directed that every acid attack survivor be paid a minimum compensation of ₹3 lakhs by the concerned state government or Union Territory, with ₹1 lakh to be disbursed within 15 days of the incident to cover immediate medical expenses. All hospitals – public and private – were directed to provide free first-aid and medical treatment to acid attack survivors.

The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 🔗

Building on the momentum created by Laxmi’s PIL and the nationwide protests following the December 2012 Delhi gang rape case, Parliament passed the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act in 2013. This legislation, shaped partly by the Justice J.S. Verma Committee’s recommendations, introduced Sections 326A and 326B into the Indian Penal Code.

Section 326A deals with voluntarily causing grievous hurt by means of acid or any corrosive substance. It prescribes a minimum imprisonment of 10 years, which may extend to life imprisonment, along with a fine that must be sufficient to meet the medical expenses of the victim. Section 326B addresses the attempt to throw acid, carrying a punishment of 5 to 7 years of imprisonment, along with a fine. The Act also introduced Section 357A into the Code of Criminal Procedure to provide for victim compensation schemes, and Section 114B into the Indian Evidence Act to create a presumption about the accused’s knowledge of the likely consequences of the act.

Survivor stories that changed the conversation 🔗

Behind every legal reform lies a deeply personal story of suffering and resilience. Two survivors, in particular, have played a pivotal role in bringing acid violence to national attention.

Laxmi Agarwal 🔗

Beyond her legal battle, Laxmi Agarwal became one of the most prominent voices against acid violence. She co-founded the Chhanv Foundation, which provides medical, legal, and rehabilitation support to acid attack survivors. Through the café Sheroes Hangout in Agra, the foundation offers employment to survivors, helping them regain financial independence and self-confidence.

In 2014, Laxmi received the International Women of Courage Award from then-US First Lady Michelle Obama. She walked the ramp at London Fashion Week in 2016. Her life story inspired the 2020 Bollywood film Chhapaak, starring Deepika Padukone, which brought widespread attention to the realities of acid violence. Laxmi’s campaign to “Stop Acid Sale” gathered over 27,000 signatures and directly contributed to the Supreme Court’s decision to regulate acid sales.

Sonali Mukherjee 🔗

Sonali Mukherjee’s story from Dhanbad, Jharkhand, is one of both devastation and extraordinary resilience. In 2003, when she was just 17, three men who had been harassing her broke into her home and poured acid on her face as she slept. The attack left her blind, partially deaf, and severely disfigured. She required over 22 surgeries. Her family was financially ruined – her father sold their ancestral land and jewellery to pay for her treatment.

The three attackers were sentenced to nine years in prison but were released on bail within three years. Exhausted by the lack of justice and crushed by debt, Sonali petitioned for euthanasia in 2012, saying she no longer wished to live. Her appearance on the television show Kaun Banega Crorepati brought her story to millions. She won prize money that funded further treatment and, more importantly, sparked a national conversation. In 2014, the Jharkhand state government appointed her as a clerk, and in 2015 she married Chittaranjan Tiwari, an engineer who had been moved by her courage.

Challenges in implementation 🔗

Strong laws on paper do not automatically translate into justice on the ground. Despite the 2013 reforms, several persistent challenges undermine their effectiveness.

Low conviction rates and judicial delays 🔗

The conviction rate for acid attack cases remains alarmingly low. Trials drag on for years, sometimes over a decade. The 2009 Shaheen Malik acid attack case, for example, ended in acquittal after a 16-year legal battle, exposing serious gaps in investigation and prosecution. Delayed justice compounds the trauma survivors already endure.

Inadequate compensation 🔗

While the Supreme Court mandated a minimum compensation of ₹3 lakhs, many survivors report receiving far less after arbitrary deductions. The Centre for Law and Policy Research has documented cases where private hospitals refuse to treat survivors for free as mandated, and where male survivors are denied compensation altogether, despite the Laxmi judgment applying to all survivors regardless of gender.

Continued easy access to acid 🔗

Despite regulations, acid remains readily available in many parts of the country. Investigative reports have found corrosive substances being sold openly in markets across Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The challenge is that acids have legitimate industrial and household uses, making outright bans impractical. What’s lacking is enforcement – many states have not fully implemented the Supreme Court’s guidelines on sale regulation.

Social stigma and underreporting 🔗

Perhaps the most insidious challenge is social. Survivors face isolation, discrimination, and victim-blaming. Many are unable to find employment or return to education due to their injuries and the way society treats them. Families sometimes discourage victims from reporting attacks out of shame or fear. This culture of silence ensures that official statistics capture only a fraction of the actual violence.

The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita and recent reforms 🔗

With the replacement of the Indian Penal Code by the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) in 2024, the provisions on acid attacks have been carried forward under new section numbers. The substantive penalties remain stringent – up to life imprisonment and adequate fines for medical treatment. The BNS framework continues to treat acid attacks as a specific and serious offence, maintaining the legal foundation established in 2013.

Beyond legislation, there is growing recognition that a multi-pronged approach is needed. This includes mandatory gender-sensitisation training for judges and prosecutors, fast-track courts for acid attack cases, and comprehensive lifelong rehabilitation that addresses not only medical needs but also psychological well-being, education, and livelihood.

Lessons from Bangladesh 🔗

Bangladesh offers a powerful example of what determined action can achieve. In the early 2000s, the country had one of the highest rates of acid attacks globally. The government responded with strict legislation, including sealing illegal acid-selling shops within 30 days, combined with public awareness campaigns. The results were dramatic – cases dropped from nearly 500 in 2002 to just 13 by 2024. This success demonstrates that when regulation, enforcement, and public education work together, meaningful reduction in acid violence is achievable.

The role of civil society and survivor-led movements 🔗

Organisations like the Chhanv Foundation, Make Love Not Scars, and ASTI have been essential in filling gaps left by government inaction. These organisations provide medical assistance, legal aid, psychological counselling, and vocational training to survivors. Survivor-led initiatives like the Sheroes Hangout cafés have challenged conventional beauty standards and created spaces where survivors can reclaim their dignity and economic independence.

Public campaigns and social media advocacy have also played a crucial role in shifting public perception. The stories of survivors like Laxmi, Sonali, Reshma Qureshi (who walked the ramp at New York Fashion Week), and Ritu Saini have shown that acid attack survivors are not defined by their scars. Their visibility has been instrumental in pushing for policy changes and keeping the issue in public consciousness.

What needs to change 🔗

While the legal framework has improved significantly since 2013, there is still a wide gap between law and practice. Here are some areas that need urgent attention:

Stricter enforcement of acid sale regulations – State governments must ensure that the Supreme Court’s guidelines are actually implemented, with penalties for vendors who sell acid without proper documentation.

Faster trials and higher conviction rates – Dedicated fast-track courts for acid attack cases would reduce the years-long wait that compounds survivor trauma.

Realistic and timely compensation – The minimum compensation amount needs to be revised upward, and disbursement mechanisms must be simplified so that survivors receive funds when they need them most – immediately after the attack.

Comprehensive rehabilitation – Beyond medical treatment, survivors need psychological support, educational opportunities, and job training. The disability assessment norms under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, should be revised to better account for the functional and psychological impact of acid attacks.

Public awareness and cultural change – Ultimately, acid attacks are rooted in patriarchal attitudes that treat women’s autonomy – especially the right to refuse a man’s advances – as an affront deserving punishment. Addressing this requires sustained investment in education, gender sensitisation programmes, and community engagement.

What do you think? 🔗

Given that strong laws exist but conviction rates remain low and acid is still easily available, where should the focus of reform efforts lie – in better enforcement of existing laws or in deeper social and cultural change? And how can survivor-led movements be better supported to ensure that the voices most affected by this violence shape the policies meant to address it?

References

1. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11006047/
2. https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/acid-attacks-in-india-1
3. https://lawbhoomi.com/laxmi-vs-union-of-india-and-others/
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laxmi_Agarwal
5. https://clpr.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/61.-Laxmi_vs_Union_of_India_UOI_and_Ors_18072013__SCs130728COM77538.pdf
6. https://yimfindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/18.pdf
7. https://www.gicj.org/lest-we-forget/2874-laxmi-agarwal-the-acid-attack-survivor
8. https://www.cnn.com/2013/05/21/world/asia/india-acid-attack/index.html
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonali_Mukherjee
10. https://clpr.org.in/blog/acid-attack-survivors-implementing-their-right-to-dignity/
11. https://www.studyiq.com/articles/acid-attacks-in-india/