Understanding Gender-Based Violence: Definition, Causes, and Impact

Every day, millions of people – overwhelmingly women and girls – face violence simply because of their gender. This violence is not random. It is deeply rooted in unequal power dynamics, patriarchal social structures, and long-standing cultural norms that treat certain genders as inferior. Gender-based violence (GBV) is one of the most widespread human rights violations in the world, yet it remains under-reported, under-discussed, and under-addressed. To tackle it effectively, we first need to understand what it really means, where it comes from, and how deeply it impacts individuals and societies.

What is gender-based violence? 🔗

Gender-based violence refers to any harmful act carried out against a person based on their gender. According to the UNHCR, it is an umbrella term covering acts that cause physical, sexual, or mental harm or suffering, including threats of such acts, coercion, and deprivations of liberty – whether occurring in public or private settings. The concept is grounded in the understanding that socially constructed differences between males and females create power imbalances, and these imbalances fuel violence.

GBV can take many forms. It includes sexual violence such as rape, sexual abuse, and harassment. It also encompasses physical assault, emotional and psychological abuse, economic deprivation, and harmful traditional practices like child marriage, female genital mutilation, and honour-based crimes. Newer forms of GBV have also emerged in the digital age, including online harassment, cyberstalking, and sexual bullying through electronic platforms.

It is important to note that while the majority of GBV survivors are women and girls, men and boys can also be victims – particularly in contexts like armed conflict and detention. The Inter-Agency Field Manual on Reproductive Health highlights that the term “gender-based violence” specifically draws attention to how the subordinate status of women in society increases their vulnerability to violence, while also acknowledging that anyone can be targeted based on gender norms.

GBV vs. violence against women: understanding the distinction 🔗

The terms “gender-based violence” and “violence against women” (VAW) are frequently used interchangeably, but they are not the same thing. The World Bank’s resource guide on GBV terminology clarifies that GBV is the broader term, encompassing violence directed at any person based on gender. Violence against women, on the other hand, is a subset of GBV that specifically refers to acts targeting women and girls.

The overlap between the two is understandable. Most gender-based violence is inflicted by men on women for gender-related reasons. However, the GBV framework also captures violence against men and boys when it is tied to gender norms, as well as violence against LGBTQI+ individuals targeted for their gender identity or sexual orientation. Using the broader GBV terminology helps policymakers develop more inclusive and comprehensive responses.

UNFPA explains that another related but distinct concept is domestic violence, which describes violence between intimate partners or family members sharing a living space. While domestic violence is the most common form of GBV, it is broader in that it can include violence against children, siblings, or elderly family members – not just violence rooted in gender.

Root causes and contributing factors 🔗

GBV does not happen in a vacuum. It is the product of deeply entrenched structural inequalities and cultural conditioning. Understanding its causes requires looking at multiple levels – societal, community, relational, and individual.

Patriarchal norms and gender inequality 🔗

At the societal level, patriarchal belief systems are the single most significant driver of GBV. These systems assign men a dominant role in families and communities while restricting women’s autonomy, mobility, and decision-making. An Observer Research Foundation brief notes that traditional gender roles prescribe a docile and inferior position for women, who are expected to prioritise housework and service to the family. This creates an environment where male entitlement and the objectification of women become normalised, providing the conditions in which violence is tolerated or even justified.

In India, these norms manifest in deeply specific ways – from dowry-related harassment and child marriage to sex-selective abortions and honour killings. The cultural expectation that women should be obedient and silent makes it harder for survivors to report abuse, seek help, or leave violent situations.

Socio-economic factors 🔗

Poverty, lack of education, and economic dependence significantly increase women’s vulnerability to GBV. When women have fewer economic resources or opportunities, they are more likely to remain in abusive relationships because they lack viable alternatives. Research from the Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics identifies poverty, lack of education, and patriarchal norms as key contributing factors to domestic violence, noting that economically disadvantaged women are less equipped to escape abusive situations or access support services.

Community and relational dynamics 🔗

A study published in PMC uses the socio-ecological model to explain how GBV operates at multiple levels. At the community level, the absence of strong support systems, limited access to services, and community tolerance of violence create an environment where abuse persists. At the relationship level, factors like in-law abuse, dowry demands, and strict gender role expectations within families directly increase the risk of violence. Individually, factors such as early marriage, low education, and internalised powerlessness make women more susceptible to victimisation.

Institutional and state-level failures 🔗

When the state fails to enforce protective laws or when its own agents perpetuate violence, the cycle deepens. GBV can be committed or condoned by state actors, including police and military personnel. Secondary victimisation – where survivors face hostility, negligence, or discrimination when seeking help from authorities – further discourages reporting and reinforces the culture of impunity.

Forms and contexts of gender-based violence 🔗

GBV operates across a wide spectrum. It is useful to understand its various forms to appreciate how pervasive and interconnected these manifestations are.

Violence within the family 🔗

Domestic or intimate partner violence is the most common form of GBV globally. It includes physical assault, sexual coercion, emotional manipulation, and economic control within a household. In India, the National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS) reports that about 26 per cent of women have experienced physical violence from their spouses during their lifetime, with the figure being significantly higher in some states. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (PWDVA) provides the legal framework for addressing such violence, defining it to include physical, sexual, economic, and emotional abuse.

Dowry-related violence remains a particularly devastating form of domestic abuse. It can escalate from persistent harassment to murder or forced suicide, commonly referred to as dowry death or bride burning.

Violence in the community 🔗

Sexual assault, harassment, trafficking, and forced prostitution are forms of GBV that occur in community settings – on streets, in workplaces, and in educational institutions. The 2013 amendments to the Criminal Law, introduced in the aftermath of the Nirbhaya case, expanded the definition of sexual offences and introduced harsher penalties. However, enforcement continues to be inconsistent, and underreporting remains a major challenge.

Violence by the state or during conflict 🔗

Sexual violence is also used as a weapon of war and a tool of political repression. Rape and other forms of sexual violence committed by military or police personnel constitute serious violations of both international humanitarian law and national law. In conflict zones, women and displaced populations face exponentially higher risks. UN Women data indicates that approximately 70 per cent of women in humanitarian settings experience GBV, compared to an already alarming global figure of 35 per cent.

Digital and emerging forms 🔗

With the expansion of internet access, new forms of GBV have surfaced. Cyberstalking, revenge pornography, online sexual harassment, and digital surveillance are increasingly targeting women and girls. In India, the Information Technology Act, 2000 has provisions that address some of these issues, but significant gaps remain, particularly in recognising gender-specific psychological violence in digital spaces.

The scale of the problem: key statistics 🔗

Numbers can only tell part of the story, but they are essential for understanding the scale and urgency of GBV.

Globally, the UNFPA estimates that nearly one in three women worldwide – approximately 736 million people – have experienced intimate partner violence, non-partner sexual violence, or both at least once in their lifetime. Every ten minutes, a woman or girl is killed by a family member or intimate partner.

In India, National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data shows a sharp increase in reported crimes against women over the years – from roughly 228,650 incidents in 2011 to over 428,000 in 2021. These figures represent only reported cases; the actual prevalence is likely much higher, as most violence against women goes unreported due to stigma, fear, and lack of faith in the justice system.

National Family Health Survey data reveals that physical violence by husbands remains the most commonly experienced form of abuse, followed by sexual violence. Approximately 27 per cent of ever-married women have faced physical violence, 13 per cent have experienced emotional abuse, and 6 per cent have been subjected to sexual violence by their spouse.

Impact on individuals and society 🔗

The consequences of GBV reach far beyond the immediate act of violence. They ripple through every aspect of a survivor’s life – physical, psychological, social, and economic.

Physical health consequences 🔗

Physical injuries from GBV range from bruises and fractures to severe and life-threatening conditions. Survivors may also face unintended pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections including HIV, and complications related to unsafe abortions. For many women, chronic health conditions such as persistent pain, gastrointestinal disorders, and reproductive health problems become lasting reminders of their trauma.

Mental health impact 🔗

The psychological toll of GBV is immense. Research from NIMHANS found that 40 per cent of violence survivors report poor mental health. Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, and suicidal ideation are common among GBV survivors. Many women also develop somatoform disorders, where psychological distress manifests as physical symptoms like headaches, back pain, and stomach cramps.

Social and economic consequences 🔗

GBV restricts women’s participation in education, employment, and public life. Survivors often face social stigma and isolation, which further limits their access to opportunities and support networks. At a broader level, GBV hinders economic development by reducing workforce productivity and increasing the demand for healthcare, legal, and social services. It also perpetuates intergenerational cycles of violence and inequality, as children who witness domestic violence are more likely to experience or perpetrate it in their own lives.

The legal and policy landscape 🔗

India has a comprehensive legal framework aimed at addressing various forms of GBV. Key legislations include the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005; the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013; the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961; and the POCSO Act, 2012 for the protection of children from sexual offences. The 2013 Criminal Law Amendment expanded the definitions and penalties for sexual crimes significantly.

At the constitutional level, Article 15 prohibits gender-based discrimination, and Article 21 guarantees the right to life and personal liberty. India is also a signatory to international frameworks like the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).

However, the gap between legislation and implementation remains wide. Low conviction rates, lengthy legal processes, undertrained police personnel, and social pressure on survivors to withdraw complaints all undermine the effectiveness of these laws. Addressing this gap requires not just stronger enforcement but also a fundamental shift in attitudes at every level of the system.

Moving towards prevention 🔗

Tackling GBV requires moving beyond response and towards prevention. This means addressing the root causes – patriarchal norms, unequal power dynamics, and structural discrimination – rather than just reacting to individual incidents.

Education is a critical lever for change. Gender sensitisation programmes in schools and colleges can help young people develop equitable attitudes early on. Community-level interventions that engage men and boys in conversations about masculinity and respect are equally important.

Strengthening access to economic resources for women – through education, employment opportunities, property rights, and financial literacy – reduces their dependence on potentially abusive partners. Improved access to shelters, counselling services, legal aid, and helplines also creates a more supportive ecosystem for survivors.

Ultimately, GBV is not just a women’s issue. It is a societal challenge that demands collective action – from individuals, families, communities, institutions, and the state.

What do you think? Can gender-based violence truly be eliminated without fundamentally changing the way gender roles are taught and reinforced from childhood? And how can communities better support survivors who choose to speak up, without placing additional burdens on them?

References

1. https://www.unhcr.org/gbv-toolkit/_test/
2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK305160/
3. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/violence-against-women-and-girls/terminology
4. https://www.usaforunfpa.org/what-is-gender-based-violence-gbv/
5. https://www.orfonline.org/research/the-case-for-a-feminist-approach-to-gender-based-violence-policymaking-in-india
6. https://gipe.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Gender-Based-Violence-A-Shred-of-Evidence-from-NFHS-5.pdf
7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8752615/
8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4216486/
9. https://www.unwomen.org/en/articles/facts-and-figures/facts-and-figures-ending-violence-against-women
10. https://www.unfpa.org/gender-based-violence