Structure and Roles of the Indian Parliament

At the heart of the world’s largest democracy sits a three-part institution that shapes every law, budget, and policy decision affecting over a billion people. The Parliament is not just a building in New Delhi – it is a living system of representation, debate, and accountability. Understanding how it is structured and what it actually does is essential to understanding governance itself.

The three components of Parliament 🔗

Contrary to a common misconception, Parliament is not just the two Houses you see on television during debates. According to Article 79 of the Constitution, Parliament consists of three components: the President of India, the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). All three are essential to the process of legislation, and no bill becomes law without the participation of each.

This tri-part design was a deliberate choice by the Constituent Assembly. It balances popular representation (Lok Sabha), federal representation of states (Rajya Sabha), and a constitutional head (President) who ensures procedural and constitutional propriety. Together, they form what the Constitution describes as a bicameral legislature with the President as an integral part.

The role of the President in Parliament 🔗

The President is not a member of either House and does not sit in daily proceedings. Yet the President is inseparable from Parliament’s functioning. Under Article 85 of the Constitution, the President summons each House to meet, can prorogue either House, and can dissolve the Lok Sabha. A gap of no more than six months is allowed between two sessions, which means Parliament must meet at least twice a year. [Image: Illustration of the three components of Parliament – President, Rajya Sabha, and Lok Sabha – shown as interconnected pillars]

Other key presidential functions tied to Parliament include giving assent to bills (without which no bill becomes law), addressing both Houses at the start of the first session after a general election and at the start of each year, nominating 12 members to the Rajya Sabha for their expertise, and issuing ordinances when Parliament is not in session. Importantly, the President exercises these powers only on the advice of the Council of Ministers, making the role largely formal but constitutionally significant.

The Rajya Sabha: the Council of States 🔗

The Rajya Sabha is the Upper House, designed to give the states and union territories a voice in national lawmaking. Its maximum strength is 250 members, with 238 representing states and union territories and 12 nominated by the President for their distinction in literature, science, art, or social service. The current sanctioned strength stands at 245 seats.

How members are elected 🔗

Unlike the Lok Sabha, the Rajya Sabha is not directly elected. Members representing states are chosen by the elected members of State Legislative Assemblies through a system of proportional representation using the single transferable vote. This indirect election is deliberate: it ensures that state legislatures – themselves elected by citizens – send representatives who reflect the political balance of each state.

To qualify as a member, a person must be a citizen of India and at least 30 years of age, higher than the Lok Sabha threshold. The idea is that the Upper House benefits from more experienced and mature legislators who can provide considered review of legislation.

A permanent body 🔗

One of the defining features of the Rajya Sabha is that it is a permanent body that cannot be dissolved, though roughly one-third of its members retire every two years. Each member serves a six-year term. This staggered retirement ensures continuity – even if the Lok Sabha is dissolved, the Rajya Sabha continues to function, preserving institutional memory and preventing legislative vacuum.

The Vice-President of India serves as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. In the Chairman’s absence, a Deputy Chairman elected from among the members presides over proceedings.

The Lok Sabha: the House of the People 🔗

The Lok Sabha is where the democratic pulse of the country beats loudest. Its members are directly elected by citizens aged 18 and above using the first-past-the-post system. The Constitution allows for a maximum strength of 552 members, though currently the House has 543 elected members. Of these, 530 represent the states and 13 represent the union territories.

Until 2020, the President could nominate two members from the Anglo-Indian community, but this practice was abolished by the 104th Amendment to the Constitution. [Image: Photograph of the Lok Sabha chamber during a session, showing the Speaker’s chair and members’ seating]

Term and dissolution 🔗

The Lok Sabha has a term of five years from the date of its first meeting, unless dissolved earlier. The President can dissolve the House before its term ends on the advice of the Prime Minister. During a national emergency, Parliament can extend the term by law for one year at a time, but not beyond six months after the emergency ends.

The presiding officer of the Lok Sabha is the Speaker, who is elected by the House from among its members. The Speaker continues to hold office even after the House is dissolved, until the next House elects a new one. A Deputy Speaker assists in running proceedings.

Qualifications for membership 🔗

To become a Lok Sabha member, a person must be a citizen of India, at least 25 years of age, and fulfill other conditions set by law. This lower age threshold reflects the Lower House’s role as the voice of the people – it is meant to be accessible and representative.

The primary functions of Parliament 🔗

Parliament performs a wide range of roles that go far beyond lawmaking. Parliament performs four major functions: representation of citizens, law making, oversight of the executive, and scrutiny of the budget. Let us examine each in detail.

Legislative functions 🔗

Law-making is the core function. Parliament has exclusive authority to make laws on subjects in the Union List and overriding powers on the Concurrent List. It also has residuary powers – meaning it can legislate on any subject not mentioned in any of the three lists.

Every bill passes through three readings in each House before it is passed. Once both Houses pass a bill, it is sent to the President for assent. In the case of a deadlock between the two Houses, the President can summon a joint sitting, which has been convened only three times in parliamentary history – for the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), the Banking Service Commission Repeal Bill (1978), and the Prevention of Terrorism Act (2002).

Financial functions 🔗

This is where the Lok Sabha’s supremacy is most visible. The executive cannot spend a single rupee without parliamentary approval. The Union Budget, prepared by the Cabinet, must be approved by Parliament. All proposals to levy taxes require parliamentary sanction.

Money Bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha, and only on the recommendation of the President. Once the Lok Sabha passes a money bill, the Rajya Sabha can only delay it by 14 days or suggest changes, which the Lok Sabha may or may not accept. This makes the Lower House the final authority on financial matters.

Two standing committees – the Public Accounts Committee and the Estimates Committee – monitor how the executive spends the funds granted to it, providing post-budgetary scrutiny.

Executive oversight 🔗

In a parliamentary system, the executive is drawn from and responsible to the legislature. Parliament keeps the Council of Ministers accountable through several mechanisms. The most powerful is the no-confidence motion, which can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha. If passed, the entire Council of Ministers, including the Prime Minister, must resign.

Other tools include the Question Hour, where ministers answer questions about their ministries; the Zero Hour, where members raise urgent matters without prior notice; adjournment motions to discuss urgent matters of public importance; censure motions; and cut motions that challenge budget proposals.

However, the effectiveness of this oversight has come under scrutiny. In the 17th Lok Sabha (2019-24), Question Hour functioned for only 60% of its scheduled time in the Lok Sabha and 52% in the Rajya Sabha, reflecting concerns about disruptions and declining debate quality.

Constituent functions 🔗

Parliament has the power to amend the Constitution under Article 368, though this power is subject to the Basic Structure Doctrine laid down by the Supreme Court. Both Houses have equal powers in constitutional amendments, and there is no provision for a joint sitting in case of a deadlock over a Constitution Amendment Bill.

Electoral and judicial functions 🔗

Parliament participates in electing the President and Vice-President of India. It can also initiate impeachment proceedings against the President, remove judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, and punish members for breach of privilege.

Why the Lok Sabha holds the upper hand 🔗

Though the Rajya Sabha has equal footing in most legislative matters, the Lok Sabha enjoys clear supremacy in two critical areas: financial matters and control over the executive. Only the Lok Sabha can pass a no-confidence motion against the government, and only it has the final say on money bills.

This imbalance is intentional. The Lok Sabha’s greater influence reflects the typical pattern of parliamentary democracies, where the directly elected lower house tends to be more powerful than the upper house. After all, it is the Lok Sabha that carries the direct mandate of the people.

Parliament as the mirror of the nation 🔗

Beyond its formal functions, Parliament acts as what is sometimes called a “miniature nation” – a forum where the diversity of India’s regions, languages, communities, and ideologies is represented and debated. It is where the federal character of the Union meets the democratic will of the people.

Sessions of Parliament typically follow a three-session pattern each year: the Budget Session (February to May), the Monsoon Session (July to August), and the Winter Session (November to December). Each has its own rhythm and purpose, with the Budget Session being the longest and most consequential for government finances.

What do you think? Given that the Lok Sabha holds dominant powers over finances and the executive, does the Rajya Sabha still serve its intended purpose as a genuine check on hasty legislation – or has it become more of a political arena than a chamber of deliberation? And in an era of frequent disruptions, how should parliamentary oversight mechanisms be redesigned to remain effective?

References

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_India
2. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parliament-of-India
3. https://www.constitutionofindia.net/articles/article-85-sessions-of-parliament-prorogation-and-dissolution/
4. https://knowindia.india.gov.in/profile/the-union/legislature.php
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajya_Sabha
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Sabha
7. https://prsindia.org/files/parliament/discussion_papers/1417667860–Parliamentary%20Oversight%20of%20the%20Executive.pdf
8. https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/psp01/chapter/the-indian-parliament-structure-functions-and-role/
9. https://www.drishtiias.com/to-the-points/Paper2/parliament-part-i
10. https://www.nextias.com/ca/editorial-analysis/03-05-2025/strengthening-parliamentary-oversight-in-india